 |
|
| About Miami | |
|
|
| Academics | |
|
|
| Admission | |
|
|
| Living at Miami | |
|
|
| University Offices |
 |
|||
|
General Bulletin 2006-2008 |  |
|
|
|||
|
Programs of StudyThe College of Arts and Science
General InformationThe College of Arts and Science has as its primary purpose provision for a liberal education, which has been defined traditionally as one that assures intellectual enlargement through general study of arts and science. A liberal education should expand students’ awareness of diverse approaches to understanding and transmitting knowledge and free them from the narrow perspectives of specialization uninformed by a general knowledge of the various systems of scientific and humane thought that have shaped civilizations. This generalized inquiry provides the basis for a sense of community within the College of Arts and Science and the understanding necessary to an enlightened re-evaluation of culture. The College offers the degrees Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Arts in International Studies, and Bachelor of Science. An associate’s degree is also offered at Middletown campus; this program is described in the Hamilton and Middletown chapter. AccreditationDepartments accredited by professional associations are: the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry by the American Chemical Society, the Department of Psychology by the American Psychological Association, and the Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology by the American Speech and Hearing Association. General RequirementsThese are the general requirements of the College of Arts and Science for graduation:
If you are a transfer student, you must take a substantial portion of your major requirements at Miami. You must consult with the Chief Departmental Adviser of your major department at the time of transfer. The College Requirement (CAS)The divisional requirement in Arts and Science is called the College Requirement (CAS). If you are working toward the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.), you must fulfill all sections of the CAS; if you are working toward the Bachelor of Science (B.S.), you must fulfill only CAS-A (foreign language), but the B.S. requires more hours of concentration in your major. In many cases, you can fulfill sections of the Miami Plan and the College Requirement with the same course. This is shown in a chart entitled Basic Requirements: Bachelor of Arts, which follows.
When you plan your program, keep these important points in mind:
CAS-A Foreign LanguageDirect acquisition of a different communication system facilitates access to a foreign culture. It also promotes understanding of how language structures human consciousness, increases the understanding of your own language, and makes possible a more informed awareness of the interaction between language and other social institutions. All foreign languages taught at Miami are applicable for this requirement. They include Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish. If you take a course with a 202-level course prerequisite, that course automatically satisfies CAS-A. Greek 202 or Latin 202 may fulfill either CAS-A or CAS-B-LIT, but not both. Requirement: The foreign language requirement may be met in any one of the following ways:
The foreign language placement guide in the Academic Planning section describes the background necessary to enter a course at a certain level; this will help you choose your first course. Placement tests do not award academic credit. CAS-B Humanities (9 semester hours)Liberally educated students become familiar with and understand human values expressed through society. They know events and ideas that help form ideals, classical and contemporary literature that expresses beliefs, and religious and philosophical principles that stand behind actions. They are cognizant of processes whereby these values and works came into being, of methods by which they may be examined, and of needs and desires they express and fulfill. Requirement: You must complete at least six of the required nine semester hours from courses within the College of Arts and Science in two of the following four categories: history, literature, philosophy, and religion. These hours may also be used to fulfill Group II (Fine Arts, Humanities) of the Miami Plan if they are designated MPF II A or B or Group III (U.S. or World Cultures) if designated MPF III. The additional three hours may be from other courses not in the categories listed above as long as they have been approved by the College of Arts and Science and are designated as CAS-B in the course descriptions. “History” includes all courses offered by the Department of History. “Literature” includes all literature courses offered by the departments of Classics; English; French and Italian; German, Russian, and East Asian Languages; Spanish and Portuguese; and Theatre. These literature courses are designated CAS-B-LIT in the Courses of Instruction chapter. Greek 202 or Latin 202 may fulfill either CAS-A or CAS-B-LIT, but not both. “Philosophy” includes all courses offered by the Department of Philosophy, except PHL 273 or 373, which can only be used to fulfill CAS-E. “Religion” includes all courses offered by the Department of Comparative Religion. CAS-C Social Science (9 semester hours)Through study of social science (the systematic study of human behavior, human institutions, and theoretical models through which human beings attempt to organize their lives), liberally educated students become familiar with regularities and variations in human behavior, with explanations of these regularities and variations, with methods useful in systematically and objectively validating propositions concerning these phenomena, and with potential for analyzing human behavior objectively. Requirement: You must complete at least six of the nine required semester hours from courses within the College of Arts and Science in two of the following six categories: anthropology; economics; geography except GEO 121, 432; political science; psychology; and sociology and gerontology. These hours may also be used to fulfill Group II (Social Science) of the Miami Plan if they are designated MPF IIC or Group III (U.S. or World Cultures) if designated MPF III. The additional three hours may be from other courses not in the categories above as long as they have been approved by the College of Arts and Science and are designated as CAS-C in the course descriptions.
CAS-D Natural Science (10 semester hours)The liberally educated student learns to understand natural phenomena through observations and experimentation. Physical sciences are involved largely with behavior of energy, particles, atoms, and molecules. Biological sciences are concerned with nature, variation, richness, and interactions of phenomena of life. The natural science requirement introduces you to various aspects of scientific inquiry as practiced in botany, chemistry, geology, microbiology, physical geography, physics, and zoology. Laboratory experience is included to demonstrate the relationship between theories or models used within a given science and experimental results. Requirement: You must complete at least 10 semester hours from courses within the College of Arts and Science natural science areas, including at least three semester hours in physical science and three in biological science. One course must be either a laboratory course or a course that includes laboratory work; these courses are designated CAS-D/LAB in course descriptions. Nine of these hours may also fulfill Group IV (Natural Science) of the Miami Plan if they are designated MPF IV. Physical science includes all courses offered by the departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Geology, and Physics; AER 118; GEO 121, and GEO 424. (Other geography courses may be used to fulfill CAS-C, social science.) Biological science includes all courses offered by the departments of Botany, Microbiology, and Zoology and GEO 431, 432. CAS-E Formal Reasoning (3 semester hours)Liberally educated students enhance their capacity to reason through the study in inductive and deductive thinking. Disciplines that employ formalized languages as the means to develop such thinking include mathematics, statistics, logic, and linguistics. College courses in formal reasoning explicitly develop the student’s ability:
Requirement: You must complete at least three semester hours chosen from the courses listed below. Courses listed below do not apply for any other sections of the College Requirement (CAS). These hours may also be used to fulfill Group V (Mathematics, Formal Reasoning and Technology) of the Miami Plan if they are designated MPF V.
You should consult the mathematics and statistics placement guide in the Academic Planning chapter or an adviser in the department if you are thinking about taking a mathematics course for this requirement. Within the College of Arts and Science, there are three divisions (areas) of major: humanities, social science, and natural science. Interdisciplinary majors (American studies, black world studies, international studies, journalism, and women’s studies) are not placed in one division of major, but may have courses that apply to various sections of the Miami Plan or college requirement. Basic Requirements: Bachelor of Arts (A.B.)
Historical Perspective Course Advanced hours (200 level and above): 56 hours minimum TOTAL SEMESTER HOURS REQUIRED FOR GRADUATION: 128 hours minimum Basic Requirements: Bachelor of Science (B.S.)
Area of MajorIn order for you to understand these areas and how they pertain to the College Requirement, we list below all majors in Arts and Science and which area the major is in.
Departmental HonorsThe College offers a program in departmental honors for students who qualify for and desire independent work in a major field of study under the guidance of a faculty mentor(s). Students who successfully complete such an effort graduate with a departmental honors notation on their transcripts and under their names in the commencement program. To qualify for entrance into the departmental honors program, you must be a senior, a major in the College of Arts and Science, and have a grade point average of at least 3.5 in the major in which departmental honors work is desired. You must meet specific requirements of the department or academic program in which honors work is to be done; you must consult with the appropriate department or program director about specific requirements. Students who qualify, register for course 480 (include department abbreviation; for example, BOT 480): departmental honors (1-6, maximum 6) for a minimum total of 4 semester hours and a maximum total of 6 semester hours. These credits may be taken in one or more semesters of your senior year. Approvals of the department chair or program director and the faculty mentor of your honors work are required for registration. Expectations are rigorous and demanding, but the nature of projects vary. Projects might involve independent readings, creative efforts, internships, or research, based in the laboratory, field, or library. The project must result in a tangible product, such as an examination, written report, paper or monograph, oral presentation, work of art, or documentary. Departmental honors in the College may be coordinated and integrated with work for Senior Directed Study in the University Honors Program. A common project may serve both departmental honors and university honors but separate and distinct presentations must be made to the department or program and to the University Honors Program for evaluation to earn both honors notations. Notes on Credit RestrictionsBefore registering for your courses, you should keep in mind these restrictions on credit:
Combined ProgramsCombined programs require students to transfer to other institutions to complete professional training programs. These are also called 3+1 or 4+1 programs (three or four years here, one year at another institution) or 3-2 programs (three years here, two at another institution). Please understand that in most cases we cannot guarantee your acceptance into a program at another institution. Clinical Laboratory ScienceClinical laboratory scientists apply scientific background and skills to supervision and performance of diagnostic procedures to determine presence or absence of disease and to monitor response to treatment. Miami offers two baccalaureate degree programs that include a 12-month laboratory "clinical year." In the 3+1 program, you take three years at Miami followed by an internship to receive a B.S. in clinical laboratory science. In the 4+1 program, you take four years at Miami to earn an A.B. or B.S. in zoology, chemistry, or microbiology, and then you enter the clinical year. After completing either program, you are eligible to take national registry examinations. Please understand that Miami cannot guarantee your acceptance into a clinical year site. 3+1 ProgramThis program requires 96 pre-clinical year semester hours at Miami, 32 in advanced courses. You take an interdepartmental sequence of courses in chemistry, microbiology, and zoology. Specific requirements include: general microbiology, pathogenic microbiology,and immunology, a year of general chemistry and a year of organic chemistry (or organic chemistry and biochemistry), one year of general biology; a course in mathematics; competency in computer usage; and completion of a foreign language at second-year level. You must have at least a 2.5 cumulative grade point average to be eligible for this program. During your junior year, you must file a petition in the dean’s office of the College of Arts and Science to be graduated in this program. When you apply for a clinical year at a hospital, you must have a letter of intent from the Registrar of Miami University. During your clinical year, you will be registered for MBI 487-489 at Miami. These courses fulfill the Miami Plan Capstone Experience requirement. Clinical laboratory rotations and lecture series may include hematology, chemistry, bacteriology, immunology, virology, parasitology, mycology, forensics, and toxicology. After you complete your clinical year and certify this to the Office of the Registrar, you will be awarded the B.S. in clinical laboratory science. Affiliated training hospitals for this program include University of Cincinnati Hospital in Cincinnati; Wright State University in Dayton; Southwest General Health Center near Cleveland; Children’s Hospital Medical Center of Akron; St. Elizabeth Medical Center in Covington, Kentucky; Parkview Memorial Hospital in Fort Wayne, Indiana; and Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. 4+1 ProgramFor this program, you choose a major in chemistry, microbiology, or zoology and fulfill all departmental, Arts and Science, and Miami Plan requirements for the baccalaureate degree. Pre-clinical year course requirements are: a year of general chemistry, a year of organic chemistry (or organic chemistry and biochemistry), a year of introductory biology, and one course in mathematics and general microbiology. During fall semester of your senior year, you apply to enter a clinical year program at any hospital approved by the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences in the U.S. For more information about either program in clinical laboratory science, see the program adviser in the Department of Microbiology. EngineeringStudents desiring an engineering degree from another school in addition to a Miami degree may arrange either A.B. or B.S. 3-2 programs with any engineering school. A.B. requirements for the 3-2 program are in the next section under Arts-Professional Arrangement. B.S. requirements for the 3-2 program are equivalent to these, except for deletion of the A.B. College of Arts and Science Requirement sections A through E, inclusion of the B.S. College of Arts and Science Requirement section A, and substitution of an appropriate B.S. curriculum instead of an A.B. curriculum. Completion of the 3-2 engineering program satisfies the Miami Plan Capstone Experience requirement. At Miami your major requirements must be completed unless they are continued in engineering school by recommendation of the major professor and approval of the Committee of Advisers. In particular, you may wish to major in engineering physics, a program described in this chapter with the College’s major programs. Miami has cooperative arrangements with Case Western Reserve University, Columbia University, and Washington University (St. Louis), so that any student satisfying the appropriate 3-2 program requirements will be accepted by Case, Columbia, or Washington University and will receive the Miami degree (A.B. or B.S.) upon receiving the engineering bachelor’s degree or sooner. Environmental Management and ForestryMiami has a cooperative agreement with Duke University School of the Environment, which allows students to attend Miami for three years and Duke for two years. You receive a B.S. in Botany from Miami and either a Master’s in Forestry (M.F.) or a Master’s in Environmental Management (M.E.M.) from Duke. Miami students accepted by Duke can enter the professional master’s degree programs at the end of the junior year. Your Miami degree (B.S.) is granted after your first year at Duke when Miami’s requirements are met. Basic requirements for recommendation to Duke’s programs are 96 semester hours at Miami, including 32 at or above the 200 level, a cumulative grade point average of 2.5, and completion of both the Miami Plan and College of Arts and Science Requirement A (foreign language). In the first semester of your junior year, you must file a petition with the College of Arts and Science to request a recommendation for the program, and you must apply to Duke for admission. Deadline is February 1 for fall admission and October 15 for winter admission. Duke also requires the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) for admission. You should arrange to take this test the first semester of your junior year. Courses required for the three years of study at Miami follow. Departmental Requirements (24 hours, 14 must be advanced hours) Related Hours Recommended Electives Environmental Principles and Practice Co-MajorThe environmental principles and practice co-major emphasizes human-nature interaction in understanding environmental patterns and processes. Students are prepared to pursue a wide variety of career paths and post-graduate degrees in environmental science, especially those with management and policy specializations. The term "co-major" indicates that students must complete another major at Miami University. The environmental principles and practice co-major complements the primary major, which provides significant depth and breadth in an academic discipline. There is no specific degree designation for the co-major, students receive the degreee designation of their primary major. Environmental Science Co-MajorThe environmental science co-major emphasizes earth science and life science approaches to understanding environemntal patterns and processes. Students are prepared to pursue a wide variety of career paths and post-graduate degrees in environmental science, especially those with biological and physical science specializations. The term "co-major" indicates that students must complete another major at Miami University. The environmental science co-major complements the primary major, which provides significant depth and breadth in an academic discipline. There is no specific degree designation for the co-major, students receive the degreee designation of their primary major. Arts-Professional ArrangementIn addition to the combined programs above, we offer the Arts-Professional Arrangement as another way to earn a professional degree in less than normal time. This arrangement is open only to students working for the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) degree. This program allows you to substitute your senior year at Miami with the first year of an accredited professional school. Schools include those in business administration, dentistry, engineering, forestry, law, medicine, nursing, public health, or theology. The Miami A.B. is usually awarded at commencement following the first year in professional school. If you have not earned at least a 2.0 grade point average for your first year of professional school, your Miami degree will not be awarded until you have finished the professional degree. To be graduated under the Arts-Professional Arrangement, these requirements must be met: you must earn at least 96 Miami semester hours, including 32 hours at 200 level or above, with a 3.0 grade point average; you must complete the Miami Plan requirements, the College Requirement, and all requirements of your major (except those that can be continued in professional school); and you must file a petition with the College of Arts and Science by the end of your junior year. Students transferring to Miami at the end of their freshman year may petition for a reduction of the 96 Miami hours required for this program, as long as this reduction does not exceed 32 hours. For more information, consult an adviser in the College of Arts and Science. Planning for Law SchoolLaw school is a popular option for Arts and Science majors. More than 300 students applied to law school in 2005; about 75% gained admission to at least one institution. You are encouraged to take a very broad liberal arts program. Common majors include economics, English, history, and political science. Majors in other fields however, such as philosophy, classics, foreign language, mathematics, statistics, and psychology have also been successful preparations for students entering law school. According to The Official Guide to U.S. Law Schools, “While no single curricular path is the ideal preparation for law school, you should choose courses that sharpen analytical reasoning and writing skills. Law schools prefer students who can think, read, and write well, and who have some understanding of what shapes human experience.” Most law schools have high standards for grade point average (g.p.a.) and all require the Law School Admission Test (LSAT). In recent years, the average Miami applicant has had a 3.2 g.p.a. and a 154 score (on the scale of 120-180) on the LSAT. You should consult a pre-law adviser before taking any course on a credit/no credit (pass/fail) basis. For more information about law school and the application process, talk to one of our pre-law advisers in the departments of Political Science, English, Classics, and History. Planning for Medical, Dental, and Veterinary SchoolsMost medical, dental, and veterinary schools limit admission requirements to allow for students from a variety of undergraduate programs. All schools recognize the desirability of a broad education that includes a strong foundation in natural sciences, the basis for study and practice of health professions; communication skills, essential for developing successful relationships with the public and professionals; and social sciences and humanities, in order to better understand yourself and others. Therefore, you should follow an undergraduate program that is as broad and comprehensive as possible in order to prepare for a career in a people-oriented profession in a changing society. Pursuing a double major in sciences is not advised if it is done at the expense of obtaining a broad education. Common admission requirements include two years of chemistry, two years of biology, one year of physics, and one year of English. Requirements of schools may vary; schools may recommend additional courses. You should therefore consider individual requirements of schools and plan your curriculum accordingly. Students who plan to go to professional schools should see an academic adviser before taking any course on a credit/no-credit basis. Many students planning to attend medical, dental, or veterinary school major in zoology, microbiology, chemistry or biochemistry. A recommended program for your first year is: CHM 141, 142 College Chemistry (3,3) or CHM137, 142 (4,3) Science courses are demanding and, for many freshmen, the first semester is a difficult period. Your electives, then, should not be a difficult course for you. During your sophomore and/or junior year, take organic chemistry and lab ( CHM 241, 255) and physics and lab ( PHY 171, 184). A year of biology (BOT/MBI/ ZOO 115, 116 or ZOO 113, 114) should be taken sometime during your first two years. Medical schools require the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), dental schools require the Dental Aptitude Test (DAT), and most veterinary schools want the Graduate Record Exam. You are strongly urged to talk with a pre-professional adviser as early as possible in preparing for one of these careers. For information, talk with one of our pre-medicine advisers in zoology or in chemistry and biochemistry, microbiology, physics, or psychology. Pre-dentistry and pre-veterinary advisers are also in zoology. Planning for Optometry SchoolTypical admission requirements for optometry school include one year of English, one year of biology, two years of chemistry, one year of physics, one year of mathematics (calculus and statistics), one year of psychology, one year of sociology, one semester of microbiology, and one or two semesters of physiology. Since specific requirements vary, you should contact schools where you may apply, and plan your curriculum accordingly. Most pre-optometry students major in zoology, chemistry, or microbiology. Optometry schools require the Optometry Admission Test, which is given in February and October each year. A recommended program for your first year is: BOT/MBI/ ZOO 115, 116 Biological Concepts (4, 4) For more information, consult with the pre-optometry adviser in the Department of Zoology. Planning for Pharmacy SchoolBecause the Doctor of Pharmacy is now the only accredited degree for pharmacy, you should complete a bachelor’s degree (usually in zoology or chemistry), or at least two years of prerequisite course work, and apply to a Doctor of Pharmacy program. Typical prerequisites for pharmacy school include course work in calculus; inorganic, organic, and analytical chemistry; English, microbiology, physics, statistics, and zoology. Since specific requirements vary, contact schools of interest, and plan your curriculum accordingly. For more information, consult with the pre-pharmacy adviser in the Department of Zoology. Planning for Physical Therapy SchoolIf you are interested in a career in physical or occupational therapy, you should take courses that meet the prerequisites for graduate degree programs in those areas. The Pre-Physical and Pre-Occupational Therapy Program at Miami is designed to provide students with the basic science and related courses needed for background preparation and admission into an accredited physical or occupational therapy program. The American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) has mandated that all physical therapy programs offer master's degrees to retain or earn certification; many also offer doctoral degrees. Occupational therapy programs may offer baccalaureate, master's, or doctoral degrees. However, according to the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), all baccalaureate occupational therapy programs nationwide are expected to transition to master's degree granting programs by 2007. Therefore, students interested in physical or occupational therapy usually complete their bachelor's degree at Miami and then apply to a master's or doctoral degree program in physical or occupational therapy at another school. Because there is no uniformity in prerequisite courses required by physical or occupational therapy programs, you must contact schools for their requirements. Select courses at Miami that will meet requirements for your program. The following courses are required prior to admission by most programs. Note: This is only a general guideline. BOT/MBI/ZOO115 Biological Concepts (4) or ZOO 113 Animal Diversity (4) Other suggested courses include: For more information, contact a physical therapy program adviser in the Department of Zoology or the Department of Physical Education, Health, and Sport Studies. Special Interest AreasIf you are interested in one of these areas, we suggest you look into the Arts and Science degree program(s) listed beside it.
* Miami has a graduate degree program in environmental science. See the Graduate Bulletin for more information Teacher LicensureCombining a teacher licensure program with a major in the College of Arts and Science makes a student eligible for two degrees: an A.B. or B.S. degree in the College of Arts and Science and a B.S. in Education degree in the School of Education and Allied Professions. Students who wish to combine licensure with an arts and science major must observe rules, procedures, and restrictions pertaining to admission to a licensure cohort. If you choose to earn two degrees, you must meet all requirements for the Miami Plan, the College of Arts and Science, and teacher licensure. Early in your program you should plan your schedule with academic advisers from both the College of Arts and Science and the School of Education and Allied Professions. The following departments offer the possibility of combining the teacher licensure program with an Arts and Science major: botany, chemistry, English, French, geology, German, history, Latin, mathematics, physics, political science, Russian, Spanish, and zoology. For information, contact the Department of Teacher Education in the School of Education and Allied Professions, McGuffey Hall (513-529-6443). Major Requirements: College of Arts and ScienceAmerican Studies: Bachelor of ArtsNote: Changes to this program are being considered as this Bulletin goes to press, please consult the director of American Studies Program, 120 MacMillan Hall (513-529-5333). This program is for students interested in the study of culture in the United States from an interdisciplinary perspective. Drawing from a range of disciplines and approaches, students have the opportunity to explore issues of political, social, and regional identity, cultural diversity, and national character, as well as public and popular culture as they have evolved from the colonial period to the present. The major encourages the study of the complex modern society of the United States as a whole, and at the same time allows students to pursue their particular interests by developing an area of concentration within the field. These concentrations might focus on historical moments, geographical regions, or social groups; or modes of thinking, expression or behavior, as well as public history and museum studies. Students are able to work with the program director to define their own program of study and combine courses in creative ways. For a complete list of courses that fulfill requirements, please contact the director. Program Requirements (43 semester hours) American studies seminars American studies topics Selected courses and sequences in other areas Other courses: You may also want an internship ( AMS 340) or independent study (AMS 377 or 477). Anthropology: Bachelor of ArtsFor information contact the Department of Anthropology, 164 Upham Hall (513-529-8399). The major in anthropology exposes students to the field as a whole. At the same time, you have the opportunity to pursue individual interests. Program Requirements (36 semester hours)Core courses. All of these: Electives. Seventeen (17) semester hours from these four categories; at least 12 hours from two of the four categories: Biological anthropology Archaeology Linguistic anthropology Related Hours (16 required) Special Curriculum Requirements You must pass a methods course; this requirement is filled by: Courses outside anthropology may be used for this requirement but they will not count toward required hours for the major. Among courses you may use for a methods course are: SOC 262 Research Methods (4) or STA 261 Statistics (4) Biochemistry: Bachelor of ArtsFor information contact the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 160 Hughes Laboratories (513-529-2813). This program is for students interested in a career in the life or health sciences or biochemistry. Students who anticipate graduate study in biochemistry should elect the B.S. Biochemistry program. Chemistry and required related courses cannot be taken on a credit/no-credit basis. Program Requirements (35-36 semester hours)All of these: Related Hours (26-28 required) One of these: One of these: Biochemistry: Bachelor of ScienceFor information contact the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 160 Hughes Laboratories (513-529-2813). This major is usually chosen by students who want to enter the chemical industry or graduate school in chemistry, biochemistry, or related areas. No chemistry or required related courses may be taken credit/no-credit. Program Requirements (40-44 semester hours)All of these: Related Hours (40 required) One course from each of these three groups: | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||